Chemistry in Everyday Life - Formula Sheet

Therapeutic Index

The safety margin of a drug is given by the formula:

\[\text{Therapeutic Index} = \frac{\text{Maximum Tolerated Curative Dose}}{\text{Minimum Effective Curative Dose}}\]

Where:

• Maximum Tolerated Curative Dose: The highest dosage level of a drug that can be safely administered to a patient without causing toxic side effects.
• Minimum Effective Curative Dose: The lowest dosage level of a drug required to produce the desired medical curing or relieving response.

Saponification Reaction

The chemical reaction for the alkaline hydrolysis of fats or oils to produce soap is represented as follows:

\[\text{Triglyceride} + 3\text{NaOH} \rightarrow \text{Glycerol} + 3\text{Soap (Sodium Salt of Fatty Acid)}\]

For example, using glyceryl palmitate (tripalmitin) as the triglyceride:

\[\text{CH}_2(\text{OOC-C}_{15}\text{H}_{31})\text{-CH(OOC-C}_{15}\text{H}_{31})\text{-CH}_2(\text{OOC-C}_{15}\text{H}_{31}) + 3\text{NaOH} \rightarrow \text{CH}_2\text{OH-CHOH-CH}_2\text{OH} + 3\text{C}_{15}\text{H}_{31}\text{COONa}\]

Where:

• CH2(OOC-C15H31)-CH(OOC-C15H31)-CH2(OOC-C15H31): Glyceryl palmitate (fat).
• NaOH: Sodium hydroxide (alkali).
• CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH: Glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol, a valuable byproduct).
• C15H31COONa: Sodium palmitate (soap).

Polymerization Reactions

1. High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

\[\text{n CH}_2=\text{CH}_2 \xrightarrow[\text{Ziegler-Natta catalyst}]{373\text{K, 6-7 atm}} \text{-(CH}_2\text{-CH}_2\text{-)}_n\]

Where:

• n: Degree of polymerization.
• CH2=CH2: Ethylene monomer.
• Ziegler-Natta Catalyst: A mixture of titanium tetrachloride \[\text{TiCl}_4\] and triethylaluminium \[\text{(C}_2\text{H}_5)_3\text{Al}\].

2. Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)

\[\text{n CF}_2=\text{CF}_2 \xrightarrow[\text{Ammonium Persulfate}]{\Delta, \text{high pressure}} \text{-(CF}_2\text{-CF}_2\text{-)}_n\]

Where:

• CF2=CF2: Tetrafluoroethylene monomer.
• Ammonium Persulfate: Polymerization initiator.
• -(CF2-CF2)-n: Teflon polymer.

3. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN or Orlon)

\[\text{n CH}_2=\text{CH-CN} \xrightarrow{\text{Peroxide initiator}} \text{-(CH}_2\text{-CH(CN)-)}_n\]

Where:

• CH2=CH-CN: Acrylonitrile (prop-2-enenitrile) monomer.
• -(CH2-CH(CN))-n: Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) polymer.

4. Nylon-6,6 (Polyamide)

\[\text{n HOOC-(CH}_2)_4\text{-COOH} + \text{n H}_2\text{N-(CH}_2)_6\text{-NH}_2 \xrightarrow{533\text{K}, -\text{H}_2\text{O}} \text{-[-CO-(CH}_2)_4\text{-CO-NH-(CH}_2)_6\text{-NH-]-}_n\]

Where:

• HOOC-(CH2)4-COOH: Adipic acid (hexanedioic acid) monomer.
• H2N-(CH2)6-NH2: Hexamethylenediamine (hexane-1,6-diamine) monomer.
• -[-CO-(CH2)4-CO-NH-(CH2)6-NH-]-n: Nylon-6,6 polymer containing repeating amide bonds.

5. Nylon-6 (Perlon)

\[\text{Caprolactam} \xrightarrow[\Delta]{533\text{K, } \text{H}_2\text{O}} \epsilon\text{-Aminocaproic acid} \xrightarrow{-\text{H}_2\text{O}} \text{-[-NH-(CH}_2)_5\text{-CO-]-}_n\]

Where:

• Caprolactam: Seven-membered cyclic monomer.
• -[-NH-(CH2)5-CO-]-n: Nylon-6 polymer.

6. Terylene (Dacron Polyester)

\[\text{n HO-CH}_2\text{-CH}_2\text{-OH} + \text{n HOOC-C}_6\text{H}_4\text{-COOH} \xrightarrow[\text{Zinc acetate + Antimony trioxide}]{500\text{K}} \text{-[-O-CH}_2\text{-CH}_2\text{-O-CO-C}_6\text{H}_4\text{-CO-]-}_n + 2\text{n H}_2\text{O}\]

Where:

• HO-CH2-CH2-OH: Ethylene glycol (ethane-1,2-diol) monomer.
• HOOC-C6H4-COOH: Terephthalic acid (benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid) monomer.
• Zinc acetate + Antimony trioxide: Combined catalytic system for esterification.
• -[-O-CH2-CH2-O-CO-C6H4-CO-]-n: Terylene polymer containing repeating ester linkages.